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    </image:image>
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      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/cbf6986f-1dca-40aa-a296-966aeeeb9c94/Headshot_%28Isabella_DeLeo%29.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Current Lab Members - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/776e4a32-57c4-471d-b167-97db2e465c01/EmmaSpencerHeadshot.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Current Lab Members - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/1f90f192-5989-4a55-8919-dbf3ceba84d0/IMG_5191.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Current Lab Members - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/e6230ca6-2fdc-445e-9094-4ecbff9115f4/Headshot+-+Isabel+Liu.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Current Lab Members - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/a8ed9472-e5fe-4e4e-b3a2-14e77275d424/IMG_4901.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Current Lab Members - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/1d91cc10-a8bd-4750-8c33-0f9fc65b2780/7B70B430-96BE-4665-9FFB-75AE69F98812_1_105_c.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Current Lab Members - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/dde90f28-7411-42a9-828f-57ef1dd35967/Image001_fixed.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Current Lab Members - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
  </url>
  <url>
    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/posters</loc>
    <changefreq>daily</changefreq>
    <priority>0.75</priority>
    <lastmod>2026-03-25</lastmod>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/c3121388-4f31-4378-82cd-c8cd73a88be4/Screenshot+2024-04-03+012700.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Posters - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Each additional human essay adds a greater semantic diversity of ideas than each additional GPT-4 essay.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/dd23f8e4-4145-4e5c-8824-86a56dca4c18/Screenshot+2024-04-10+121935.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Posters - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>In Study 1, students with higher well-being at the beginning of the semester subsequently showed higher levels of online learning engagement and had higher GPAs. Study 2 partially replicated these findings, showing that students with higher well-being engaged more in online learning and achieved marginally higher GPAs</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/1398757e-94d9-4207-ad40-dd785433fae2/Screenshot+2024-04-10+122533.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Posters - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Virtual learning did not result in decreased happiness! This is not because students socialized more online, but because they socialized with loved ones at home rather than loved ones on campus.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
  </url>
  <url>
    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/home</loc>
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    <priority>1.0</priority>
    <lastmod>2026-06-27</lastmod>
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      <image:title>Home</image:title>
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  </url>
  <url>
    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/bio</loc>
    <changefreq>daily</changefreq>
    <priority>0.75</priority>
    <lastmod>2026-04-01</lastmod>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/65633c6f-3ea9-4306-a2ee-36c80840f2d1/Kushlev-scaled2.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Bio - Kostadin Kushlev, Ph.D.</image:title>
      <image:caption>PI of the Happy Tech Lab, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/1537055175953-RC9OZRQS2SZW6258RL1E/universoty-of-virginia.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Bio</image:title>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/1474001835243-1RYUF03OUHSZ23MTNJGF/image-asset.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Bio</image:title>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/1474002375634-7CLLKFZ9SY9X8VE9RKMS/Formal_Seal_of_Reed_College%2C_Portland%2C_OR%2C_USA.svg.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Bio</image:title>
    </image:image>
  </url>
  <url>
    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/contact</loc>
    <changefreq>daily</changefreq>
    <priority>0.75</priority>
    <lastmod>2026-06-17</lastmod>
  </url>
  <url>
    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/consulting</loc>
    <changefreq>daily</changefreq>
    <priority>0.75</priority>
    <lastmod>2026-01-01</lastmod>
  </url>
  <url>
    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/extra-distinctions</loc>
    <changefreq>daily</changefreq>
    <priority>0.75</priority>
    <lastmod>2026-04-01</lastmod>
  </url>
  <url>
    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/featured</loc>
    <changefreq>daily</changefreq>
    <priority>0.75</priority>
    <lastmod>2026-06-27</lastmod>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/b63af33c-e58a-498a-9b7c-8b27fafa81b5/17519004-cover.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Theory - Abstract</image:title>
      <image:caption>Research on social digital technologies like smartphones and social media has grown exponentially, yet consensus on their effects on well-being remains elusive. I introduce the Costs and Opportunities of Technology in Context (COTeC) framework, focused on defining and integrating the processes by which social technologies impact well-being indirectly via their opportunity costs. COTeC specifies at least three such mechanisms: displacement (i.e., time reallocation: time spent on devices leaves less time for other activities), substitution (i.e., qualitative replacement: technology offers alternatives to more challenging, but often more rewarding, activities), and interference (i.e., real-time attention reallocation: social technologies tax cognitive resources, reallocate attention, and disrupt ingrained social processes and expectations). Though evidence suggests that these mechanisms primarily undermine digital well-being, the COTeC framework posits that their effects depend on contextual affordances: on what is being displaced, substituted, or interfered with. I consider the practical implications of the framework for policy, practice (e.g., digital detox interventions), and emerging technologies like artificial intelligence (AI). In short, COTeC aims to organize existing evidence of opportunity-cost processes (e.g., phubbing vs. technoference), build on existing content-focused and person-focused approaches, and accelerate discoveries with practical implications.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/add898e4-bc69-4f6e-961e-87ae8df4cf68/Current_Directions.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Theory - Abstract</image:title>
      <image:caption>As smartphones become ever more integrated in people’s lives, a burgeoning new area of research has emerged on their well-being effects. We propose that disparate strands of research and apparently contradictory findings can be integrated under three basic hypotheses, positing that smartphones influence well-being by (1) replacing other activities (displacement hypothesis), (2) interfering with concurrent activities (interference hypothesis), and (3) affording access to information and activities that would otherwise be unavailable (complementarity hypothesis). Using this framework, we highlight methodological issues and go beyond net effects to examine how and when phones boost versus hurt well-being. We examine both psychological and contextual mediators and moderators of the effects, thus outlining an agenda for future research.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/1632261191432-BCYBR6POS50MQT4L28H1/416rASksXtS._SL500_.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Theory - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
  </url>
  <url>
    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/socioeconomics-of-happiness</loc>
    <changefreq>daily</changefreq>
    <priority>0.75</priority>
    <lastmod>2026-02-06</lastmod>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/ea6f87ca-a8a7-4b79-822c-8cc6709675b0/Screenshot+2023-06-26+194419.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Socioeconomics of Happiness - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
  </url>
  <url>
    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/increasing-happiness</loc>
    <changefreq>daily</changefreq>
    <priority>0.75</priority>
    <lastmod>2026-04-24</lastmod>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/cfc6f457-17b6-4720-9db1-a1632f2dc863/Screenshot+2023-06-26+195741.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Increasing Happiness - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/7137d9a0-b7bf-4214-8c54-0f9252c303fd/Screenshot+2023-06-26+194929.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Increasing Happiness - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/0e5e26a6-4db6-479f-8dff-750c70b2a176/Screenshot+2023-06-21+113140.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Increasing Happiness - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/6f89acd7-8b16-4df2-b234-408d0d96e736/Screenshot+2023-06-26+195425.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Increasing Happiness - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/c84223e9-a81e-4b76-8726-e7d630083c7f/Screenshot+2023-06-26+195548.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Increasing Happiness - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
  </url>
  <url>
    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/digital-well-being</loc>
    <changefreq>daily</changefreq>
    <priority>0.75</priority>
    <lastmod>2026-03-25</lastmod>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/2510939b-3f81-400e-91d3-f1c27184f945/Screenshot+2023-06-28+165936.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Digital Well-Being - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/79bd9064-5e51-4a54-9555-f956cde45d92/Screenshot+2023-06-26+200116.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Digital Well-Being - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/871b6fbf-ad24-4247-bd99-d3defd2526de/Screenshot+2023-06-26+200507.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Digital Well-Being - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
  </url>
  <url>
    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/other</loc>
    <changefreq>daily</changefreq>
    <priority>0.75</priority>
    <lastmod>2026-03-10</lastmod>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/66f7ecea-99c1-484b-b3c5-97bdab6e4664/Screenshot+2023-06-26+194638.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Other - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
  </url>
  <url>
    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/papers</loc>
    <changefreq>daily</changefreq>
    <priority>0.75</priority>
    <lastmod>2026-06-26</lastmod>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/e8750d38-d50b-4cac-b23e-02518b83e54a/screen-post-LJUaTzKtFNc-unsplash.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Papers - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/332491e4-af3d-4a79-846f-63d494af8f1d/paige-cody-bOVZ_f3fbQM-unsplash.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Papers - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/f1f4b09d-a768-408c-8dea-6b7a6a01d8db/corinne-kutz-tMI2_-r5Nfo-unsplash.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Papers - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/d30c4f06-ec67-4464-80bb-52b6ede448dd/good-faces-MUAjN1w9lUA-unsplash.jpg</image:loc>
      <image:title>Papers - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
    <image:image>
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      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
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      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
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    <image:image>
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      <image:title>Lab</image:title>
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      <image:title>Lab</image:title>
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    <image:image>
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      <image:title>Adolescent SM Project</image:title>
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      <image:title>Adolescent SM Project - Photo by Chris Boese</image:title>
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      <image:title>Adolescent SM Project - Photo by Lesli Whitecotton</image:title>
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      <image:title>Adolescent SM Project - Photo by Sebastian Leon-prado</image:title>
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      <image:title>Adolescent SM Project - Photo by artist: Sixteen Miles Out</image:title>
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      <image:title>Adolescent SM Project - Photo by ©Drobot Dean | stock.adobe.com</image:title>
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      <image:title>Adolescent SM Project - Photo by ©Brian | stock.adobe.com</image:title>
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      <image:title>Adolescent Social Media Resources</image:title>
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    <image:image>
      <image:loc>https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/57a40c19414fb54f51f8095f/4263ec87-1919-4d4b-883c-277b6155bd4e/Screen+Shot+2024-07-02+at+2.37.00+PM.png</image:loc>
      <image:title>Adolescent Social Media Resources</image:title>
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    <image:image>
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      <image:title>Adolescent Social Media Resources</image:title>
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      <image:title>Social Media Legislation Study - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
    </image:image>
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    <loc>https://www.kushlev.com/hidden-costs-of-ai</loc>
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      <image:title>Hidden Costs of AI - Make it stand out</image:title>
      <image:caption>Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference.</image:caption>
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